IIRC one of the adapters Canon sell for EF lenses on the R series cameras has filters that slot in.
I have some third party adapters for my Sony A7ii that have a variable ND built in. (My Sony is full spectrum IR converted so this enables me to adjust the relative brightness of the visual & infra red parts of the image. Not full control as sadly I can only darken the visual, the IR part remains full intensity. Using this I can effectively shoot IR only on some of the lenses I have (such as fisheyes) that can't take filters.)
Both those adapters are actually for mirrorless cameras not actually DSLRs.
Some long telephotos (including most mirror lenses) are designed to take filters at the back. This is done in part to allow small filters a complete set of B&W filters for a typical catadioptric (around 30mm diameter) will weigh a lot less than a single filter for my MTO (a mirror lens that only takes front filters (112mm diameter IIRC).
For the rear filter types a UV filter is part of the set to be used if no other filter is wanted as the filter does effect the focusing...
Rear mounting filters are also normal for astronomy telescopes, but not usually ND types.